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The Condemnations at the medieval University of Paris were enacted to restrict certain teachings as being heretical. These included a number of medieval theological teachings, but most importantly the physical treatises of Aristotle. The investigations of these teachings were conducted by the Bishops of Paris. The Condemnations of 1277 are traditionally linked to an investigation requested by Pope John XXI, although whether he actually supported drawing up a list of condemnations is unclear. Approximately sixteen lists of censured theses were issued by the University of Paris during the 13th and 14th centuries. Most of these lists of propositions were put together into systematic collections of prohibited articles.〔 Of these, the Condemnations of 1277 are considered particularly important by those historians who consider that they encouraged scholars to question the tenets of Aristotelian science.〔Woods, p 91-92〕 From this perspective, some historians maintain that the condemnations had positive effects on the development of science, perhaps even representing the beginnings of modern science.〔 ==Condemnation of 1210== The Condemnation of 1210 was issued by the provincial synod of Sens, which included the Bishop of Paris as a member (at the time Peter of Nemours).〔Grant (1974), p 42〕 The writings of a number of medieval scholars were condemned, apparently for pantheism, and it was further stated that: "Neither the books of Aristotle on natural philosophy or their commentaries are to be read at Paris in public or secret, and this we forbid under penalty of excommunication."〔 However, this had only local force, and its application was further restricted to the Arts faculty at the University of Paris.〔 Theologians were therefore left free to read the prohibited works, the titles of which were not even specified.〔 Alexander of Aphrodisias was probably among the Aristotelian commentators whose influence was targeted.〔Théry, pp 7 ff.〕 The University of Toulouse (founded in 1229) tried to capitalise on the situation by advertising itself to students: "Those who wish to scrutinize the bosom of nature to the inmost can hear the books of Aristotle which were forbidden at Paris."〔 However, whether the prohibition had actually had an effect on the study of the physical texts in Paris is unclear.〔 English scholars, including Robert Grosseteste and Roger Bacon, studied at Paris, when they could have chosen to study at the University of Oxford, where the works could still be discussed in public.〔 It is assumed that at the least they continued to be read in Paris in private, and there are also signs that their discussion had become public by 1240.〔 ==Condemnation of 1270== By 1270, the ban on Aristotle's natural philosophy was a dead letter.〔Rubenstein, p 215〕 Nevertheless the Bishop of Paris, Étienne Tempier, convened a meeting of conservative theologians and in December 1270 banned the teaching of certain Aristotelian and Averroist doctrines at Paris.〔Rubenstein, p 216〕 Thirteen propositions were listed as false and heretical, some relating to Averroes' doctrine of the soul and the doctrine of monopsychism, and others directed against Aristotle's theory of God as a passive Unmoved Mover.〔 The banned propositions included: *"That there is numerically one and the same intellect for all humans".〔 *"That the soul separated (the body ) by death cannot suffer from bodily fire".〔 *"That God cannot grant immortality and incorruption to a mortal and corruptible thing".〔 *"That God does not know singulars".〔 *"That God does not know things other than Himself".〔 *"That human acts are not ruled by the providence of God".〔Rubenstein, p 216-217〕 *"That the world is eternal".〔Rubenstein, p 217〕 *"That there was never a first human".〔 Those who "knowingly" taught or asserted them as true would suffer automatic excommunication, with the implied threat of the medieval Inquisition if they persisted.〔 It is not known which of these statements were "taught knowingly" or "asserted" by teachers at Paris,〔 although Siger of Brabant and his radical Averroist colleagues at the Faculty of Arts were targets.〔 Evidently, the radical masters had taught that Aristotle put forward controversial propositions — which according to the Averroists would have been true at least in philosophy, even if rejected in theology - the doctrine of two truths〔Not to be confused with the Buddhist doctrine of two truths.〕〔Etienne Gilson, ''Reason and Revelation in the Middle Ages'', Charles Scribner's Sons, 1938 (1966 Reprint), section on "Averroism"〕 — and questions such as free will and the immortality of the soul were doubtless subject to scholarly debate between masters and students.〔 However, it seems "inconceivable" that any teacher would deny God's Providence or present the Aristotelian "Unmoved Mover" as the true God.〔 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Condemnations of 1210–1277」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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